Naval History and Heritage Command

The United States Navy in World War I

Introductory Essay

     In contrast to Europe where World War I is considered the “Great War” and studied as such, United States historians and the public at large have neglected this war. There may be several explanations for this. The first is that almost immediately after the war, many Americans came to believe that the United States had been outwitted by its European allies. As a result, American believed, the lofty ideals that President Woodrow Wilson had proclaimed as our war aims were ignored or subverted by Great Britain, France, Italy, and Japan before and during the Paris Peace Conference. As a result, a generation later the world fought another world war. Given this attitude, American histories focus on the period of United States neutrality (1914-17) and the post war peacemaking period (1919-1920) rather than the fighting itself.

Moreover, most of the studies of the war itself focus on the actions of the U.S. Army and the U.S. Marines. Even the leader of American naval forces in Europe, Adm. William S. Sims, wrote: “This was an army war, and the army should receive more recognition than the navy.” As a result, the U.S. Navy’s role in the war is largely forgotten. The fact that there were no major engagements involving U.S. warships contributes to this neglect. The greatest contribution that the Navy made--getting the American Expeditionary Forces to Europe and keeping them supplied despite concerted German attempts to interdict both--was considered to be defensive in nature and not something that journalists, or historians, celebrate. The lack of casualties for the U.S. Navy is again, while wonderful in and of itself, not conducive to drama. Finally, American military leaders assumed 1919 would be the year that America “won the war” and our preparations, including those of the Navy, were planned accordingly.

While others may view the sea service’s contribution as meager and ancillary, the editors believe that the United States Navy played a vital role in the allied victory. It was the Navy that delivered the American Expeditionary Forces to France without any losses. It was the Navy that kept the supply lines open. And the Navy did both despite a robust German submarine campaign and in the face of guarantees from the German naval leadership that it could not and would not be done.

World War I is also important and worthy of study because it transformed naval warfare. Fighting became three dimensional: on, under (submarines and mines), and above (aviation). It ushered in a revolution, which was reflected in both planning and force structure. The old ways, often associated with the ideas of Albert Thayer Mahan, gave way to new realities. World War 1 ushered in a technological revolution for all navies, including that of the United States, and is deserving of study.

Another reason to study the U.S. Navy in this war is that it is a study in joint operations. In contrast with the Army, American naval units became one with the navies of their allies, particularly with the British Royal Navy. With few exceptions, this integration was seamless and the Americans garnered high praise for how well they functioned in a joint setting and how much they contributed. Learning how “jointness” worked so well in this war is worthwhile.

The United States Navy was involved in a number of projects that departed from traditional operations at sea. These included the laying and dismantling of the North Sea Mine barrage, operating the Naval Railway battery, the introduction of women into the Navy, and the Naval Consulting Board, the forerunner to the Navy Warfighting Laboratory. While none were central to the outcome of the war, all are interesting case studies that provide lessons for today’s Navy.

Finally, this edition will shine light on the men and women who fought the war. Through the words of participants, the documents shine light on the actions, activities, feelings and views of those who served in the Navy. It is not, however, an uncritical celebration of the United States, the Navy, or its leaders. The documents printed here highlight mistakes and miscalculations as well as the triumphs and successes.  

The edition is presented chronologically. Documents are grouped together by date. When there is overlap, the editors have tried to link documents so themes can be traced. The documents are presented as they appeared originally with few, if any, changes introduced by the editors. Our methodologies are explained in the Editorial Method essay that follows.

Most of the documents are annotated, which means the editors have provided information designed to help the reader understand what is being referred to, identify those mentioned in the document, correct misstatements of facts, and provide additional information when necessary.

Each section also includes illustrations chosen by the editors to help the reader better understand the topic and to provide “visual context.” Another resource is a list of U.S. Navy ships mentioned in the documents with links for each ship to its history in the online edition of the Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships.

It is the hope of the editors that in reading the documents printed in this edition, the reader will gain an understanding of the war in a way that is both entertaining and informative, and will come away with a better appreciation of and insight into a pivotal period in the history of the United States, its Navy, and the world.

Dennis M. Conrad                                                                       Thomas D. Sheppard

Daniel P. Roberts                                                                         Matthew A. Yokell

Editorial Method

What is a Documentary Edition?

Documentary editions locate, transcribe, annotate, and publish important historical documents and other “primary” sources produced by politicians, military leaders, government agencies, institutions, authors, and ordinary people. The goal of documentary editing is to make the vital raw material of scholarship—primary sources written by people living at the time—available, understandable, and usable for the general reader. In this edition we have reviewed a number of “official” and “personal” papers to give the user an understanding of how the United States Navy approached, fought, and, with its allies, won World War I. For the United States it was a short war, but it had a lasting influence on the future of the United States Navy, its personnel, and the nation itself. An understanding of the war is also a key window into how the United States Navy was defined and defined itself in the twentieth century.

The Process of Documentary Editing:

The initial step for a documentary edition is collection: finding the documents that will be included in the edition. Whether a documentary edition finds material at one repository or dozens, the editors need to amass basic information about the breadth of documents with which they will be working. How many are there? What types of documents are there? How complete is the record? How did these materials end up at this archive? Answering these questions allows the editors to outline what they might learn from these documents and how those documents might be organized in the final, digital edition.

Documentary editing is a lengthy process, taking months and years to produce an edition. It is, therefore, impractical for both editors and archivists—not to mention potentially dangerous for fragile manuscripts—to do that work using the original documents at the archive. Editors instead make copies from which to work. For the World War I project, this means creating high-resolution digital images. After the images are captured, copies are stored in both a digital and non-digital form. The former allows editors to manipulate and enhance the image of the document to improve legibility in order to facilitate the editors’ working with them.

The next step is selection: the act of deciding which documents to include in the edition. There are potentially over a million documents that might be included, but the editors have chosen only a fraction of those documents for publication. Documents in this edition come from a variety of sources, but they all relate to how the Navy planned for, fought, and won World War I. We have included only a limited number of documents that give the ordinary sailor’s or junior officer’s view of the war because the focus of the edition is on those making key strategic decisions and those responsible for executing them.

The third step is transcription: the act of rendering the words of the source document into a useable text while preserving all elements of the original. This can be a difficult balance to strike. While we believe that the intelligence contained in the document is the most important aspect of it, we do try to render it as near to the original as possible. We prefer to print the document that was received by the recipient, but when that text is unavailable, we utilize the next best version. If there are two or more variants, we compare these versions and note any significant differences. We try to remain as true as possible to the original spelling, punctuation, capitalization, and paragraphing with one exception. We put a single space between sentences even if the originals are double-spaced. We also recreate typographical errors. If we find those typographical errors to be “jarring” or potentially confusing to the reader, we give the corrected version in square brackets, preceded by i.e., (id. est) or that is. Otherwise we let the misspelling and mispunctuations stand without comment. Any other manipulation of the text is indicated with square brackets within the text or by informing the readers in footnotes and/or the source note attached to each document. Exceptions are the names of ships and the names of newspapers which are always italicized.

The physical condition of the original document can also make transcribing difficult: faded ink, bleed through, and damage to the manuscript can make rendering the original text a painstaking process. For this particular project we have the issue of overwriting of the original text. After the war a documentary edition of World War I was planned and editors working for the Office of Naval Records and Library began amassing documents. They also began preparing those documents for publication by adding or subtracting information, correcting typographical errors and misspellings, and arranging the material to fit the stylistic format they had decided to use. Where possible, we have ignored these alterations and transcribed the original text. Sometimes, if it is possible the handwritten addition or subtraction may have been added by the person who typed the copy and it is a minor correction—writing over a mistype with the correct letter or writing in a letter that was omitted--we use the corrected version without comment. On occasion it is difficult to determine if punctuation is original or was added. There again, we use what we find silently, unless we determine it might alter the meaning. On other occasions we have determined that the material was added by these first editors but we cannot read the original material because it was crossed through so completely. Also, if something was added that we believe is needed by the reader to make the document understandable, such as dating, we will use the handwritten material but indicate that we have done so by putting it in angle brackets.

If we are unsure of a word or words, we indicate that by putting the questionable text in square brackets with a question mark. If the author of the document inadvertently left out a word or words that we believe are necessary to understand the material, we provide it, again, within square brackets. When we cannot read the text because it is struck through; and we cannot posit an educated guess as to what was written, we have chosen to insert [unreadable] or [illegible] in place of that text. Often, we have included identifying numbers in the source note instead of within the transcribed document as we find those identifiers were placed almost randomly and often in a columnar style that would take up a lot of space and detract from the presentation of the document. Finally, notes written on the backs and in the margins, and symbols or unusual wording are treated individually and discussed in the source note or in a footnote.

Because we post this edition on a U.S. Navy website there are a few limitations that affect our presentation of a handful of documents. These include:

1)  We cannot include lines that bisect the page either vertically or horizontally.

2)  We cannot use small caps, except in document titles.

3)  In order to create columns, we utilize tabled formatting.

4)  Images found in documents are footnoted and linked to, as opposed to being embedded in the text.

5)  We are only able to use a single underline; our system formatting options do not allow for double or triple underlines.

6)  Fractions are rendered in a X/Y format. Other special characters are rendered as they appear in the original document.

A fourth step is collation: comparing the transcription against the original manuscript to insure that the transcription is as accurate as possible. 

A fifth step is annotation: providing historical context to aid modern understanding of the documents, which makes a documentary edition superior to a simple facsimile rendering of the documents. In annotating documents the editors identify people, places, and events that the reader might not know. We also add information that we believe will help the reader understand the document and put it into its proper historical context. We are cognizant that we are not writing a monograph so interpreting the documents within the notes is minimized. This process of annotation requires conducting research and writing short, concise summaries. We use citation for that research to let the reader know where we derived the information and to provide a helpful bibliography for those that might want to delve further into a particular topic. Annotations also contain information about where the original document is located, what textual problems the editors may have found in the manuscript, and any alternative versions of the document that may exist.

Finally, there is publication. Though these documents are not published in a traditional printed volume, we face many of the same concerns as letter-press editions. While some issues are alleviated—such as weighing the scope of the documents and the length of annotation against the economic realities of printing costs—we must, like all documentary projects, take care to ensure that each document has been consistently edited, annotated, and formatted for publication. While we need not worry about fitting our documents onto a printed page, we still must ensure that our online interface accurately renders each document, note, and resource entry for users.

Organization of this Edition:

This digital edition concerns the activities of the United States Navy in World War I. United States participation in the war began on 6 April 1917 when the United States declared war on Germany and ended on 11 November 1918 when Germany signed of the Protocol of Peace. We have included a short “prewar” and “postwar” section.

The documents presented in this edition begin before the war with some of the planning done by the Navy in anticipation of a possible war with Germany. The number of documents increases in early 1917 when the United States took steps, aggressively defensive but short of war, in response to the German declaration of unrestricted submarine warfare on 31 January 1917. The edition continues after the end of war with documents concerning the expedition to northern Russia, the clean-up of the northern mine barrage, the transport of troops back to the United States, and the influenza epidemic as well as some documents concerning lessons learned during the war and the possible reformation of Navy tactics, technology, regulations, and policy based on that experience. The edition is organized by date and the documents included concern such topics as operations, technology, issues of command, and relations with allies. While there is some discussion of land operations and the political situation in the United States and abroad, these are presented in the context of operations of the Navy. Likewise, there are documents taken from the archives of the allies of the United States to provide understanding and context for U.S. Navy decision-making and operations.

Document Elements:

All documents have been formatted for digital publication. Each individual document includes a Title, Transcript, Source Note, and Footnotes. On either side of the document are the Left and Right Navigation Columns. These Navigation Columns feature tools for user comprehension, reference, and navigation, including, Reference Materials and an Advanced Search.

Title:

At the top of the document is the Title. The Title provides the name of the Author and Recipient of the document or describes the nature of the document, such as a newspaper article or squadron order, etc.

Transcript:

The Transcript of the document is below the Title. Our transcription policy is discussed in the transcription portion of the Process of Documentary Editing section.

Source Note:

Each document includes a Source Note. In the Source Note, the user will find an abbreviation used to describe the nature of the document, the Library of Congress designation for the repository which holds the original document, and information to help researchers locate that document in the repository including: collection titles, microfilm roll numbers, volume numbers, page numbers, etc.

     For example: TLS, DNA, RG 45, Entry 517B, Destroyer Ships Files: Aylwin, Folder 6.

“TLS” is an “Abbreviations Used to Describe Manuscript,” and indicates this document was a “Typed Letter that was Signed.” A complete list of all abbreviations and their corresponding meanings is to be found in the right navigation column under:  Abbreviations Used to Describe Manuscripts. That list is alphabetized.

“DNA” is the Repository Symbol for the National Archives in Washington, DC. When possible, Repository Symbols created by the Library of Congress have been used. An alphabetized list of all Repository Symbols used in the edition, and the corresponding repositories and their locations is found in the right navigation column under: Repository Symbols.

“Destroyer Ships Files: Aylwin, Folder 6,” in this case is additional information to assist the user in finding the document at the repository listed. AFNRC is an example of a Short Title for a collection and in this case stands for the “Area File of the Naval Records Collection and Library.” “M625, roll 319,” indicates the document is found in Microfilm Section 625 on Roll 319. Short Titles and shortened Collection names are used instead of full source notation to conserve space. A list of short titles and their corresponding meaning can be found in the right navigation column under: Short Titles.

Some documents were found in bound volumes that include page numbers.

Additionally, certain documents were transcribed from published materials and not from archival collections. The source note for these documents will list the published source where the document was found as either a Short Title entry or in accordance with the citation style to be found in The Chicago Manual of Style: The Essential Guide for Writers, Editors, and Publishers. Short Title information can again be found in the right navigation column under: Short Titles.

Source Notes also include descriptions of other relevant data concerning the document, including:

     - To whom the document was addressed and where on the document this information can be found.

     - If the document was done on stationary and whose stationary it was.

     - If stamps, docketing and/or a reference number was added to the document and information concerning those additions.

     - Other information the editors believe useful for the reader that does not belong in the annotation.

This information will always come after the document type and the repository information.

Annotation:

Annotation (footnotes) can be accessed by clicking on the hyperlinked numbers found throughout the document. Clicking on one of these numbers will bring up a box at the bottom of the browser with the content of the footnote. In addition to these boxes, all footnotes can be found in numerical order below the Source Note.

The editors have included annotation for a number of different reasons, including:

     - To direct users to other documents.

     - To identify individuals mentioned in a document.

     - To correct or expand titles, names, or misspelled or shortened words,.

     - To correct information known to be inaccurate.

     - To indicate when a word or phrase was put into the document under special circumstances. For instance, a handwritten interlineation on a typed document.

     - To provide historical context to better understand the document.

     - To refer users to secondary literature that explores a matter or issue further. 

Footnotes, like the documents themselves, contain information that is taken from both primary and secondary sources. These notes contain citations describing where the information was obtained. Citations for primary archival documents are in the same format as that of the Source Note, except they begin with the Author, Recipient, and Date of the document (unless it is otherwise mentioned in the footnote). Citations from secondary sources, if not in the Short Title list, are given according to The Chicago Manual of Style: The Essential Guide for Writers, Editors, and Publishers.

Using Hyperlinks to Navigate the Edition:

Hyperlinks are found throughout documents. They are attached to: a Person’s Name, a United States Navy Ship Name, and to Cross References.

Clicking on an United States Navy Ship Name will direct the user to a list of all American Ships featured in this edition. From here the user will be linked to that ship’s entry in the Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships, also found on the website of the Naval History and Heritage Command. This list can also be accessed by clicking on the American Ships link in the Right Navigation Column.

Cross Reference hyperlinks are found in Footnotes and the Source Notes. These hyperlinks indicate that the document being referenced is available in the online edition and can be instantly accessed by clicking on the link. Indicators of a cross reference include: “See:” followed by the name of an author and recipient, or a short description of the document, including the date.

Left Navigation Column:

The Left Navigation Column is specifically for navigating within the documentary edition. Below the edition name are topic names. Clicking on a topic name will open a short list of documents related to that topic. For more documents from that topic, click more documents at the bottom of that list. To have a full list of the documents under that topic, click: List of Documents.

The Tags at the bottom of the Left Navigation Column are key words and phrases that relate to other aspects of the history of the United States Navy. Clicking on one of these words or phrases will automatically direct the user to an advanced search of the entire website as if said word had been entered in the search function.

Right Navigation Column:

At the top of the right column is a search box that allows users to instantly search each individual document for a word or phrase. Type the word or phrase in the search box and press “enter” or the magnifying glass image to search the document in this way.

Below the search box is a link to the Advanced Search page. The Advanced Search is specifically designed to help users by providing a narrow search function of the Documentary Histories section of the website. Methods of searching include searching by:

     - Edition

     - Topic

     - Document Title

     - Document Type

     - U.S. ships mentioned in the Document