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From the Sea to the Stars:
A History of U.S. Navy Space and Space-Related Activities

by Gary Federici

By permission of the author and with the support of NR SPAWAR HQ 0866

June 1997

Introduction

Preface

Prologue

Chapter 0: History of Navy Space

  • 0.1 Before the beginning (Pre-1940s)
    • 0.1.1 Heavenly Satellites: The Naval Observatory
    • 0.1.2 Space physics was understood
    • 0.1.3 Early visions of military space applications
  • 0.2 Key Developments in Rocketry

Chapter 1: The Beginnings

  • 1.1 Navy gets involved in space (1944-1956)
    • 1.1.1 Naval Research Laboratory's space probes
    • 1.1.2 Applied Physics Laboratory's space probes
    • 1.1.3 Development of NRL's Viking Rockets
    • 1.1.4 Development of APL's Aerobee Rockets
    • 1.1.5 Navy Satellite Communications Relay via the Moon
  • 1.2 Early Competition Over Space Development
  • 1.3 Navy requirements for communications, navigation, and surveillance at the end of Korean War
  • 1.4 Sputnik I: The Watershed Event
    • 1.4.1 The Challenge of Monitoring Activities Behind the Iron Curtain
    • 1.4.2 First on orbit!
      • 1.4.2.1 The International Geophysical Year
      • 1.4.2.2 Sputnik!
  • 1.5 The new U.S. space organizations, 1958-1961
    • 1.5.1 NASA
    • 1.5.2 ARPA
    • 1.5.3 CINCSPACE is proposed, 1958
    • 1.5.4 The National Reconnaissance Office
      • 1.5.4.1 Background
      • 1.5.4.2 Establishment of the NRO
    • 1.5.5 The Defense Communications Agency (DCA)
  • 1.6 The Navy's space program burgeons, 1958-1961
    • 1.6.1 Origins of the Transit Navigation System
    • 1.6.2 Navy's Satellite Communications, 1958-61
      • 1.6.2.1 Communication Moon Relay, the World's First Operational "Communications satellite" System
      • 1.6.2.2 Passive satellite communications relay ("Echo")
      • 1.6.2.3 Active satellite communications relay ("Score", "Courier" and "Advent")
    • 1.6.4 Navy Environmental satellites
    • 1.6.5 Navy Spacecraft Detection and Tracking Systems
      • 1.6.5.1 APL's Tranet System
      • 1.6.5.2 NRL's Minitrack
      • 1.6.5.3 The U.S. Naval Space Surveillance System(NAVSPASUR) W5-4

Chapter 2: Satellites for Strategic Defense, 1961-1970

  • 2.1 A major setback for the Navy space program
    • 2.1.1 The 1961 decision
    • 2.1.2 Navy caught completely by surprise
  • 2.2 The Transit Navigational System Goes Operational
    • 2.2.1 Operational Transit Tracking Stations
    • 2.2.2 Transit Users' Terminals
    • 2.2.3 Prototype Operational Transit Satellites (Oscar)
  • 2.3 Navy's Role in Satellite Communications During the 1960s
    • 2.3.1 "Spy-Ship" Communications Support (TRSCOM)
    • 2.3.2 Satellite-communications experiment ships
    • 2.3.3 The NRL Satellite-Communications Terminal at Waldorf, Maryland
      • 2.3.3.1 Compass Link
      • 2.3.3.2 Further Navy communications experiments
    • 2.3.4 Experimental Communications Satellites of the 1960s
      • 2.3.4.1 Commercial Communications Satellites
      • 2.3.4.2 Lincoln Laboratories Experimental Satellites (LES-series)
    • 2.3.5 Defense Satellite Communications System (DSCS)
      • 2.3.5.1 Purpose of DSCS
      • 2.3.5.2 DSGS Satellites
      • 2.3.5.3 Navy SHF terminals for DSCS
    • 2.3.6 The Tactical Satellite Communications (TAGSAT 1) Experiments
    • 2.3.7 The Navy's LOFTI Satellites
  • 2.4 Other Space Programs of significant interest to the Navy in the1960s
    • 2.4.1 Manned Space Flight
      • 2.4.1.1 How high can man go?
      • 2.4.1.2 How fast can man go?
      • 2.4.1.3 Man in Space
      • 2.4.1.4 Task Force 140
      • 2.4.1.5 Manned Orbiting Laboratory
      • 2.4.1.6 Summary of Naval participation in manned space programs
  • 2.5 Navy's ELINT Reconnaissance Project in the 1960s
  • 2.6 Navy's Early Space-based Radar Programs
    • 2.6.1 Albatross
    • 2.6.2 Navy Radar for the Manned Orbiting Laboratory (MOL)
    • 2.6.3 Program 749
  • 2.7 Navy Environmental-Sensing Satellites in the 1960s
    • 2.7.1 Ionospheric Research
    • 2.7.2 NRL's SOLRAD Satellites During the 1960s
    • 2.7.3 APL's Environmental-Research Satellites Doting the 1960s
      • 2.7.3.1 Geodesy program
      • 2.7.3.2 APL Space-physics program
  • 2.8 Navy Space-Support Operations
    • 2.8.1 Navy Range-Instrumentation Ships
  • 2.9 ASAT Systems during the "Strategic" Epoch
    • 2.9.1 U.S. polity on war in space (strategic space-based weapons and anti-space weapons)
    • 2.9.2 Development of U.S. ASATs
      • 2.9.2.1 Air Force and Army ASAT developments
      • 2.9.2.2 Navy Entries in the ASAT Race
    • 2.9.3 The Soviet ASAT Threat
  • 2.10 Navy contributions to satellite technology during the 1960s
    • 2.10.1 Satellite stabilization
    • 2.10.2 Satellite station-keeping on orbit
    • 2.10.3 Multiple-launch technology

Chapter 3: Navy Tactical Applications for Space Emerge in the 1970s

  • 3.1 Soviet tactical exploitation of space alerts U.S. Navy, 1967-1972
    • 3.1.1 Soviet antiship anise missiles
    • 3.1.2 Soviet ELINT Ocean Surveillance Satellites
    • 3.1.3 Soviet Ocean Reconnaissance RORSATs and EORSATs
    • 3.1.4 Soviet Navigation and Communications Satellites
    • 3.1.5 Soviet ASATs
    • 3.1.6 U.S. Navy's net tactical situation vis-a-vis the Soviets Space Systems, in the early 1970s
    • 3.1.7 Navy's need for a tactical-support space initiative
    • 3.1.8 Getting the Space-Systems Acquisition Directive revised,1970
  • 3.2 Strengthening the Navy's Space Organization
    • 3.2.1 OPNAV Space Program Sponsors
    • 3.2.2 Management of Navy Space Programs
    • 3.2.3 OPTEVFOR Detachment F/0-265
  • 3.3 Satellite communications for the U.S. fleet
    • 3.3.1 Navy communications requirements in the 1970s
    • 3.3.2 Navy satellite communications organization
    • 3.3.3 Controversy over frequency bands
    • 3.3.4 UHF and the FLTSATCOM
      • 3.3.4.1 Development of the Navy UHF terminals
      • 3.3.4.2 Acquisition of the FLTSATCOM Satellites
      • 3.3.4.3 Fleet Satellite Broadcast
      • 3.3.4.4 Leasing the Gapfiller Satellites
    • 3.3.5 Navy's Development of SHF Terminals for DSCS
    • 3.3.6 EHF and MILSTAR
      • 3.3.6.1 Acquisition of the MILSTAR Satellites
      • 3.3.6.2 Development of Navy's EHF Terminals
      • 3.3.6.7 Satellite Laser Communications to Submarines (DARPA)
  • 3.4 Space-based navigation systems in the 1970s: improvements and proposed improvements to Transit
    • 3.4.1 Transit during the 1970s
    • 3.4.2 NRL's Timation satellites
    • 3.4.3 Air Force's NAVSTAR/GPS proposal MATs in the 1970s
  • 3.5 Navy ELINT ocean-surveillance system
  • 3.6 Navy's continuing attempts to get a space-based radar ocean surveillance system in the 1970s
    • 3.6.1 Satellite Ocean Surveillance System (SOSS)
    • 3.6.2 XOS-19 and Crow's Nest
    • 3.6.3 Clipper Bow
  • 3.7 U.S. ASATs in the 1970
    • 3.7.1 1972 SALT treaty (prohibited U.S., but not Soviet, ASATs)
    • 3.7.2 Navy Sea-based ASAT proposed
    • 3.7.3 Navy countermeasures against Soviet satellite surveillance

Chapter 4: Maturing of the Navy's Space-Based Tactical Support, 1980-1996

  • 4.1 Navy Organizational Changes
  • 4.2 Evolution of tactical requirements for satellite surveillance in support of over-the-horizon targeting
  • 4.3 Validating tactical surveillance & targeting requirements for the national community
    • 4.3.1 The ELINT Requirements (Kissin) Study, 1977
    • 4.3.2 ELINT System Capabilities Study
    • 4.3.3 The ELINT mix study (ELMS), 1978
  • 4.4 Direct Tactical Reporting
    • 4.4.1 The TADDIS-B broadcast
    • 4.4.2 Tactical receive equipments (TREs)
  • 4.5 Tactical data correlation and displays
  • 4.6 No space-based radar or IR for ocean surveillance
    • 4.6.1 Navy ITSS (Integrated Tactical Surveillance System)
    • 4.6.2 Space-Based Wide Area Surveillance (SBWAS) program
      • 4.6.2.1 Augmented Classic Wizard
      • 4.6.2.2 The Air Force Joint" Space-Based Radar
      • 4.6.2.3 Disposition of SBWAS
  • 4.7 Refining Navy Satellite Communications
    • 4.7.1 SHF and EBY Communications for the Fleet
    • 4.7.2 Current Status of MIISTAR
    • 4.7.3 Exploitation of Commercial Satellite Communications
  • 4.8 Tactical Exploitation of Satellite Imagery by the Navy
    • 4.8.1 Fleet Imagery Support Terminal
    • 4.8.3 Challenge Athena
    • 4.8.4 Management and analysis of satellite imagery
  • 4.9 Navy Environmental-Sensing Satellites
    • 4.9.1GEOSAT
    • 4.9.2 Naval Remote Ocean Sensing
    • 4.9.3 Weather Satellites
      • 4.9.3.1 Introduction
      • 4.9.3.2 TIROS/NOAA
      • 4.9.3.3 GOES
      • 4.9.3.4 DMSP
      • 4.9.3.5 Navy Efforts
  • 4.10 CINCSPACE and The Naval Space Command
    • 4.10.1 Background: the U.S. Space Command
    • 4.10.2 Naval Space Command (and related organizational issues)
    • 4.10.3 Naval Space Command Activities
  • 4.11 Navy Tactical Exploitation of National Capabilities (TENCAP)
    • 4.11.1 Tactical Exploitation of National Capabilities
    • 4.11.2 1977-1981
    • 4.11.3 1982-1983
    • 4.11.4 1984-1987
      • 4.11.4.1 Night Raider
      • 4.11.4.2 TRAP
      • 4.11.4.3 High Top
    • 4.11.5 1988-1989
    • 4.11.6 1990
    • 4.11.7 1991-1992
    • 4.11.8 1993
    • 4.11.9 1994
    • 4.11.10 1995
      • 4.11.10.1 Predator
      • 4.11.10.2 Radiant Coal/Town Crier
      • 4.11.10.3 Radiant Topaz/VISTA
    • 4.11.11 TENCAP Summary
  • 4.12 Development of the "Naval Space Strategy"
    • 4.12.1 Background
    • 4.12.2 Naval Center for Space Technology
  • 4.13 Space Systems Availability and Survivability
    • 4.13.1 Background
    • 4.13.2 1960s-Hardening of the U.S. Satellites for Strategic Warfare
    • 4.13.3 1980s-Shift of Soviet Priorities in Antisatellite Warfare
    • 4.13.4 Antijam Satellite Communications
  • 4.14 Navy funding policy for space: historical perspective
    • 4.14.1 Navy's "leveraged funding" approach
    • 4.14.2 How the tactical requirements for national systems were funded
    • 4.14.3 "Common User" requirements

Chapter 5: Navy Involvement in Space Activities is the Post Cold War Era

  • 5.1 Trends in Satellite Support to Naval Operations
  • 5.2 Trends in Satellite Technology for Tactical Support
    • 5.2.1 Communications
    • 5.2.2 Navigation
    • 5.2.3 Environmental Sensing
  • 5.3 Future Roles and Missions in Space

Glossary

References

List of figures

List of tables



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